Utilizing Geological and Geoelectrical methods in a GIS-based DRASTIC model of  the Probable Groundwater Vulnerability in the Southern Nigerian Raffia Metropolis of Ikot Ekpene and its Surroundings

Emem Okon Ikpe; Udeme U. Inyang; Itoro A. Sampson

doi:10.48001/veethika.2024.10.02.003

Emem Okon Ikpe Department of Science Technology, Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8093-9904
Udeme U. Inyang Department of Science Technology, School of Applied Sciences, Akwa Ibom State https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4461-1704
Itoro A. Sampson Department of Science Technology, School of Applied Sciences, Akwa Ibom State https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1890-6160

DOI: https://doi.org/10.48001/veethika.2024.10.02.003

Keywords: Drastic, GIS, Acquier media, Permeability, grounwater, topography

Abstract

The city of Ikot Ekpene is facing a significant issue with groundwater contamination. This is due to the rising amount of home and industrial waste caused by the increasing human population and various business operations in the area. This study seeks to evaluate the susceptibility of groundwater in the metropolis of Ikot Ekpene and its surrounding areas in southern Nigeria. It will utilize integrated geoelectrical and geological approaches within the GIS-based DRASTIC model. A total of twenty vertical electrical soundings (VES) were conducted in the region using the Schlumberger array. Based on the geological drilling data, the interpretation of the VES data suggests that the area consists of 3-4 geoelectric layers. The lithological succession in the area exhibits a range of sediment types, including fine and coarse sand as well as gravelly sands. Additionally, there are localized occurrences of clay intercalations. The third geoelectric layer, located at a depth of 9.0–86.6 m, is the primary aquifer that can be utilized in the region. The DRASTIC model included seven environmental parameters, including depth to the water table, net recharge, aquifer medium, topography, impact of vadose zone, and hydraulic conductivity, with the purpose of conducting a vulnerability assessment. The assessment of groundwater vulnerability ratings (GVR) reveals that 75% of the research region is classified as high vulnerability, 20% as moderate vulnerability, and the remaining 5% as low vulnerability. The studied area is predominantly characterized by moderate to high Groundwater Vulnerability Rating (GVR), which is likely attributed to the generally gentle topography and the presence of highly permeable geomaterials in the upper levels of the water table.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Abdullahi, U. (2009). Evaluation of models for assessing groundwater vulnerability to pollution in Nigeria. Bayero Journal of Pure Applied Science, 2, 138–142.

Abu-Bakr, H. A. (2020). Groundwater vulnerability assessment in different types of aquifers. Agricultural Water Management, 240(2020), 106275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106275

Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (1987) DRASTIC: a standardised system for evaluating groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings. US-EPA Report 600/2-87-035

Amiri, F., Tabatabaie, T., & Entezari, M. (2020). GIS-based DRASTIC and modified DRASTIC techniques for assessing groundwater vulnerability to pollution in Torghabeh-Shandiz of Khorasan County Iran. Arabian Journal of Geoscience, 13, 479. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05445-0

Awawdeh, M. M., & Jaradat, R. A. (2010). Evaluation of aquifers vulnerability to contamination in the Yarmouk River basin, Jordan, based on DRASTIC method. Arabian Journal of Geoscience, 3(3), 273–282.

Awawdeh, M., Obeidat, M., & Zaiter, G. (2015). Groundwater vulnerability assessment in the vicinity of Ramtha wastewater treatment plant, North Jordan. Applied Water Science, 5, 321–334. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0194-6

Barbulescu, A. (2020). Assessing groundwater vulnerability: DRASTIC and DRASTIC-like methods: A review. Water, 12, 1356. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051356

Barres-Lallemend A (1994) Normalization des criteres d’etablissement desrtes de ulnerabilite aux pollutions. Etude documentaire pre- liminaire. BRGM R3792

Bello, A. M. A., Makinde, V., & Coker, J. O. (2010). Geostatistical analyses of accuracies of geologic sections derived from interpreted vertical electrical soundings (VES) data: an examination based on VES and Borehole Data Collected from the Northern Part of Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of American Science, 6(2), 24–31. (ISSN: 1545–1003).

Boufekane, A., & Saighi, O. (2013). Assessment of groundwater pollution by nitrates using intrinsic vulnerability methods: A case study of the Nile valley groundwater (Jijel, North-East Algeria). African Journal of Environmental Science Technology, 7(10), 949–960. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2013.142

Civita M (1990) La valutacione della vulnerabilitia degli aquifer all’inquinamamento. In: Proceedings of 1st con. naz. protezione egestione delle aque sotterranee: metodologie, technologie e obi- ettivi, 20–22 September, Maranosul Panaro, pp. 39–86

Dobrin, M. B., & Savit, C. H. (1988). Introduction to geophysical prospecting (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Doerfliger, N., Jeannin, P. Y., & Zwahlen, F. (1999). Water vulnerability assessment in karst environments: A new method of defining protection areas using a multi-attribute approach and GIS tools (EPIK method). Environmental Geology, 39, 165–176.

Edet, A. E., & Okereke, C. S. (2002). Delineation of shallow ground- water aquifers in the coastal plain sands of Calabar area (Southern Nigeria) using surface resistivity and hydrogeological data. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 35(3), 433–443.

Ekanem KR, George NJ, Ekanem AM (2022) Parametric characterization, protectivity and potentiality of shallow hydrogeological units of a medium-sized housing estate, Shelter Afrique, Akwa Ibom State, Southern Nigeria. Acta Geophysica

Ekanem, A. M. (2020). Georesistivity modelling and appraisal of soil water retention capacity in Akwa Ibom State University main campus and its environs Southern Nigeria. Modelling Earth System and Environment, 6, 2597–2608. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40808-020-00850-6

Ekanem, A. M. (2021). Estimation of aquifer geohydrodynamic properties using the Inverse Slope method. Researchers Journal of Science and Technology (REJOST), 1, 1–16.

Ekanem, A. M. (2022). AVI- and GOD-based vulnerability assessment of aquifer units: A case study of parts of Akwa Ibom State, Southern Niger Delta, Nigeria. Sustainable Water Resource Management, 8, 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00628-x

Ekanem, A. M., Akpan, A. E., George, N. J., & Thomas, J. E. (2021). Appraisal of protectivity and corrosivity of surficial hydrogeological units via geo-sounding measurements. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193, 718. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10661-021-09518-9

Ekanem, A. M., George, N. J., Thomas, J. E., & Nathaniel, E. U. (2020). Empirical Relations Between Aquifer Geohydraulic- Geoelectric Properties Derived from Surficial Resistivity Measurements in Parts of Akwa Ibom State, Southern Nigeria. Natural Resources Research, 29(4), 2635–2646. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11053-019-09606-1

Esu, E. O., Okereke, C. S., & Edet, A. E. (1999). A regional hydrostratigraphic study of Akwa Ibom State southeastern Nige- ria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 5(1), 89–96.

Fetter, C. W. (1994). Applied hydrogeology (3rd ed., p. 600). Prentice Hall Inc.

Foster SSD (1987) Fundamental concepts in aquifer vulnerability, pollution risk and protection strategy. In: Duijvenbooden W, Waegeningh HG (eds) vulnerability of soil and groundwater to pollutants. TNO Committee on Hydrological Research, The Hague, Proc Info 38, 69–86

Foster, S., Hirata, R., & Andreo, B. (2013). The aquifer pollution vulnerability concept: Aid or impediment in promoting ground- water protection? Hydrogeology Journal, 21(7), 1389–1392.

George, N. J. (2021). Geo-electrically and hydrogeologically derived vulnerability assessments of aquifer resources in the hinterland of parts of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Solid Earth Sciences, 6(2), 70–79.

George, N. J., Akpan, A. E., & Ekanem, A. M. (2016a). Assessment of textural variational pattern and electrical conduction of economic and accessible Quaternary hydrolithofacies via geo- electric and laboratory methods in SE Nigeria: A case study of select locations in Akwa Ibom State. Journal of the Geo- logical Society of India, 88, 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12594-016-0514-6

George, N. J., Bassey, N. E., Ekanem, A. M., & Thomas, J. E. (2020). Effects of anisotropic changes on the conductivity of sedimentary aquifers, southeastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. Acta Geophysica., 68, 1833–1843. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11600-020-00502-4

George, N. J., Ekanem, A. M., Ibanga, J. I., & Udosen, N. I. (2017). Hydrodynamic Implications of Aquifer Quality Index (AQI) and Flow Zone Indicator (FZI) in groundwater abstraction: A case study of coastal hydro-lithofacies in South-eastern Nigeria. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 21, 759–776. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11852-017-0535-3

George, N. J., Ekanem, A. M., Thomas, J. E., & Harry, T. A. (2021). Modelling the effect of geo-matrix conduction on the bulk and pore water resistivity in hydrogeological sedimentary beddings. Modelling Earth Systems and Environment, 8, 1335–1349. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01161-0

George, N. J., Ibuot, J. C., Ekanem, A. M., & George, A. M. (2018). Estimating the indices of inter-transmissibility magnitude of active surficial hydrogeologic units in Itu, Akwa Ibom State, southern Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 11, 134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-3475-9

George, N. J., Ubom, A. I., & Ibanga, J. I. (2014). Integrated approach to investigate the effect of leachate on groundwater around the Ikot Ekpene Dumpsite in Akwa Ibom State, Southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Geophysics, 174589, 1–12. https://doi. org/10.1155/2014/174589

Gogu, R. C., & Dassargues, A. (2000a). Current trends and future challenges in groundwater vulnerability assessment using over- lay and index methods. Environmental Geology, 39, 549–559.

Gogu, R. C., & Dassargues, A. (2000b). Sensitivity analysis for the EPIK method of vulnerability assessment in a small karstic aquifer, southern Belgium. Hydrogeology Journal, 8, 337–345. Harter T, Walker LG (2001) Assessing Vulnerability of Groundwater. pp. 9–17. 35. www.dhs.ca.gov/ps/ddwem/dwsap/DWSAPindex.htm

Ikpe, E. O., Ekanem, A. M., & George, N. J. (2022). Modelling and assessing the protectivity of hydrogeological units using primary and secondary geoelectric indices: A case study of Ikot Ekpene Urban and its environs, southern Nigeria. Modelling Earth System and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40808-022-01366-x

Isaiah, A. I., Yamusa, A. M., & Odunze, A. C. (2021). Advanced Study on Variability in Length of Rainy Season for Selected Crops Production in Coastal and Upland Areas of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Cutting- Edge Research in Agricultural Sciences, 6(5), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/cras/v6/2424E

Jaseela, C., Prabhakar, K., Sadasivan, P., & Harikumar, H. P. (2016). Application of GIS and DRASTIC modelling for evaluation of groundwater vulnerability near a solid waste disposal site. Inter- national Journal of Geosciences, 7, 558–571. https://doi.org/10. 4236/ijg.2016.74043

Khakhar, M., Ruparelia, J. P., & Vyas, A. (2017). Assessing ground- water vulnerability using GIS-based DRASTIC model for Ahmedabad district, India. Environmental Earth Science, 76, 440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6761-z

Kumar, A., & Krishna, A. P. (2020). Groundwater vulnerability and contamination risk assessment using GIS-based modified DRAS- TIC-LU model in hard rock aquifer system in India. Geocarto International, 35(11), 1149–1178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2018.1557259

Li, P., Karunanidhi, D., Subramani, T., & Srinivasamoorthy, K. (2021). Sources and consequences of groundwater contamination. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 80, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00805-z

Lodwick, W. A., Monson, W., & Svoboda, L. (1990). Attribute error and sensitivity analysis of map operations in geographical information systems: suitability analysis. International Journal of Geographical Information System, 4(4), 413–428.

Machiwal, D., Jha, M. K., Singh, V. P., & Mohan, C. (2018). Assessment and mapping of groundwater vulnerability to pollution: Cur- rent status and challenges. Earth-Science Reviews, 185, 901–927.

Maxe, L., & Johansson, P.-O. (1998). Assessing groundwater vulnerability using travel time and specific surface area as indicators. Hydrogeology Journal, 6, 441–449.

Mbipom, E. W., Okwueze, E. E., & Onwuegbeche, A. A. A. (1996). Estimation of transmissivity using VES data from Mbaise area of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Physics, 85, 28–32.

Napolitano, P., & Fabbri, A. G. (1996). Single-parameter sensitivity analysis for aquifer vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC and SINTACS. HydroGIS 96 Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and Water Resources Management. IAHS, 235, 559–566.

Neh, A. V., Ako, A. A., Ayuk, A. R., & Hosono, T. (2015). DRASTIC - GIS model for assessing vulnerability to pollution of the phreatic aquiferous formations in Douala-Cameroon. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 102, 180–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jafrearsci.2014.11.001

NRC (National Research Council). (1993). Ground Water Vulnerability Assessment: Contamination Potential under Conditions of Uncertainty. National Academy Press.

Obaje, NG (2009) Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria. London: Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg, Pp5–14.

Piscopo G (2001) Groundwater vulnerability map, explanatory notes, Castlereagh Catchment. Australia NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Parramatta. https://www.industry. nsw.gov. au/ data/assets/pdf_file/0004/151762/ Castlereagh-map-notes. pdf . Accessed March 14th 2022.

Reijers, T. J. A., & Petters, S. W. (1987). Depositional environments and diagenesis of Albian Carbonates on the Calabar Flank, SE Nigeria. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 10(3), 283–294.

Shamsuddin, M. K. N., Sulaiman, W. N. A., Ramli, M. F., & Kusin, F. M. (2018). Vertical hydraulic conductivity of riverbank and hyporheic zone sediment at Muda River riverbank filtration site, Malaysia. Applied Water Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13201-018-0880-x

Shirazi, S. M., Imran, H. M., Akib, S., Yusop, Z., & Harun, Z. B. (2013). Groundwater vulnerability assessment in the Melaka State of Malaysia using DRASTIC and GIS techniques. Environment and Earth Science, 70, 2293–2304. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12665-013-2360-9

Short, K. C., & Stauble, A. J. (1967). Outline Geology of the Niger Delta. AAPG Bulletin, 51, 761–779.

Stacher, P. (1995). Present Understanding of the Niger Delta hydrocar- bon habitat. In M. N. Oti & G. Postma (Eds.), Geology of Deltas: Rotterdam (pp. 257–267). Balkema.

Thomas, J. E., George, N. J., Ekanem, A. M., & Nsikak, E. E. (2020). Electrostratigraphy and hydrogeochemistry of hyporheic zone and water-bearing caches in the littoral shorefront of Akwa Ibom State University, Southern Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192, 505. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10661-020-08436-6

Udoh, F. E., Nyakno, J. G., & Ekanem, A. M. (2015). Analysis of microstructural properties of Paleozoic aquifer in the Benin Formation, using Grain Size Distribution Data from Water Borehole in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics, 3(4), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.9790/0990-03422530

Umoh, S. D., & Etim, E. E. (2013). Determination Of Heavy Metal Contents From Dumpsites Within Ikot Ekpene, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria Using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES), 2(2), 123–129.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (1994) Handbook: Groundwater and Wellhead Protection. US EPA Report No. EPA/625/R-94/001, Washington, DC, p 239

Van Stempvoort D, Ewert L, Was-senaar L (1992) AVI: A method for groundwater protection mapping in the prairie provinces of Canada. Prairie Provinces Water Board Report 114, Regina, SK

Venkatesan, G., Pitchaikani, S., & Saravanan, S. (2019). Assessment of groundwater vulnerability using GIS and DRASTIC for Upper Palar River Basin, Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 94, 387–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-019-1326-2

Vrba J, Zaporozec A (1994) Guidebook on Mapping Groundwater Vulnerability, Vol. 16. International Contribution to Hydrogeology, Hannover, 131 p.

Vrbka, P., Ojo, O. J., & Gebhardt, H. (1999). Hydraulic characteristics of Maastrichtian sedimentary rocks of the southeastern Bida Basin, central Nigeria. Journal of African Earth Science, 29(4), 659–667.

Zohdy AAR, Eaton GP, Mabey DR (1974) Application of surface geo- physics to groundwater investigation. USGS techniques of water resources investigations 02-D1. https://doi.org/10.3133/twri02D1