Wheat rust: The devastation and attempts to control over the years
Keywords:
Breeding for resistance, climate change and rust, Puccinia, Wheat lossAbstract
Wheat, staple food of billions and one of the major crops in volume, is an excellent source of nutrition and income. However, its susceptibility to rust poses a constant threat to sustainable production and hence food security itself. Wheat rust is the most urgent problem regarding the production of this irrevocably important crop. While cultural measures could lower down the extent of the infection, it isn’t a permanent solution. Breeding for durable resistance is by far the most dependable solution to the problem. However even this has had many setbacks of pathogen evolution, climate change and other factors. Linked DNA markers show promise for achieving race-specific resistance genes in combinations aimed at their longevity. However, a national deployment strategy is inevitable for its success. The most promising activity so far is breeding for cultivars carrying durable resistance genes based on both minor and additive gene effect. However, using genetic engineering still faces the sentimental opposition of the public against genetically modified organisms. A lot has been done and a lot is to be done in order to grow rust free wheat in our fields. The paper discusses in brief about the major milestones and ongoing attempts regarding wheat breeding for rust resistance.
References
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Buchenauer, H. (1976). Studies on the systemic activity of Bayleton (triadimefon) and its effect against certain fungal diseases of cereals. Pflanzenschutz-Nachr Bayer. 29(3): 226-280.
Bushnell, W. R., and Rowell, J. B. (1968). Premature death of adult rusted wheat plants in relation to carbon dioxide evolution by root systems. Phytopathology. 58: 651–658.
Chakraborty, S., Luck, J., Hollaway, G., Fitzgerald, G. and White, N. (2010). Rust-proofing wheat for a changing climate. Borlaug Global Rust Initiative BGRI. Technical Workshop, 30–31 May 2010, St Petersburg.
Chen, X. M. (2005). Epidemiology and control of stripe rust [Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici] on wheat. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 27 (3): 314–337.
Chen, X. M. (2013). Review article: hightemperature adult-plant resistance, key for sustainable control of stripe rust. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 4: 608–627.
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Datta, D., Nayar, S. K., Prashar, M. and Bhardwaj, S. C. (2009). Inheritance of temperature-sensitive leaf rust resistance and adult plant stripe rust resistance in common wheat cultivar PBW343. Euphytica. 166: 277-282.
Dennis, J. I. (1987). Effect of high temperatures on survival and development of Puccinia striiformis on wheat. Trans Brit Mycol Soc. 88: 91-96.
Dhakal, K., Singh, K. P., Adhikari, S., Ojha, R. and Sapkota, M. (2016). Response of application of different sources of nutrients as fertilizer on growth and yield of Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis ) and its residual effect on soil. International Journal of Experimental Research and Review. 7: 10-17.
Eastburn, D. M., Degennaro, M. M., Delucia, E. H., Dermody, O. and Mcelrone, A. J. (2010). Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide and ozone alter soybean diseases at Soy FACE. Global Change Biology. 16(1): 320-330.
Ekom, D. C. T., Benchekroun, M. N., Udupa, S. M., Iraqi, D. and Ennaji, M. M. (2015). Wheat Genetic Transformation as Efficient Tools to Fight against Fungal Diseases. Journal of agricultural Science and Technology. 5: 153-161, David publishing. doi: 10.17265/2161- 6256/2016.03.001.
Ellis, J.G., Lagudah, E.S., Spielmeyer, W. and Dodds, P. N. (2014). The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat. Front. Plant Sci. 5: 641.
Eversmeyer, M. G. and Kramer, C. L. (2000). Epidemiology of Wheat Leaf and Stem Rust in the Central Great Plains of the USA 1. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 38(1): 491-513.
Ezzahiri, B. (2001). Diseases of Wheat: Identification, Development Factors and Methods. Technology Transfer in Agriculture, Bulletin Mensuel d’Information et de Liaison du PNTTA. Accessed July 13, 2013. http://www.agrimaroc.net/77.pdf. (in French).
FAO. (2014). FAO Wheat Rust Global Programme 2014-2017, Strengthening capacities and promoting collaboration to prevent wheat rust epidemics. http://www.fao.org/resilience/resource s/resources-detail/en/c/234252/.
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FAO, Rome Flor, H. H. (1956). The complementary genic systems in flax and flax rust. Advances in genetics. 8: 29-54.
Grahski, G. C. and Mendgen, K. (1986). Die Parasiticrung des Bohnenrostes Uro111yces appendiClllallls var. appendiculallls dureh den Hyperparasitcn Verticillium lecanii: Untcrsuchungen zur Wirterkennung. zur Penetration unci Abbau der Rostpilzsporen. J. PhytopathoI. 15:116- 123.
Gregory, P. J., Johnson, S. N., Newton, A. C. and Ingram, J. S. (2009). Integrating pests and pathogens into the climate change/food security debate. Journal of Experimental Botany. 60(10): 2827- 2838.
Horvath, H., Rostoks, N., Brueggeman, R., Steffenson, B., von Wettstein, D. and Kleinhofs, A. (2003).
Genetically engineered stem rust resistance in barley using the Rpg1 gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100(1): 364-369.
Johnson, R. (1978). Practical breeding for durable resistance to rust diseases in self-pollinating cereals. Euphytica. 27(2): 529-540.
Johnson, R. (1981). Durable disease resistance, in “strategies for the control of cereal disease (JF Jenkyn and RT Plumb, eds) pp. 55-64, Blackwell, Oxford. Johnson, R. (1988). Durable resistance to yellow (stripe) rust in wheat and its implications in plant breeding. In Breeding Strategies for Resistance to the Rusts of Wheat, El Batan, Mexico (Mexico), 29 Jun-1 Jul 1987. CIMMYT.
Karnosky, D. F., Percy, K. E., Xiang, B., Callan, B., Noormets, A., Mankovska, B. and Isebrands, J. G. (2002). Interacting elevated CO2 and tropospheric O3 predisposes aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) to infection by rust (Melampsora medusae f. sp. tremuloidae). Global Change Biology. 8(4): 329-338.
Kobayashi, F., Takumi, S., Egawa, C., Ishibashi, M. and Nakamura, C. (2006). Expression patterns of low temperature responsive genes in a dominant ABA-less-sensitive mutant line of common wheat. Physiologia Plantarum. 127(4): 612-623.
Kolmer, J. A. (1996). Genetics of resistance to wheat leaf rust 1. Annual review of Phytopathology. 34(1): 435-455.
Leinhos, G. M. E. and Buchenauer, H. (1992). Inhibition of rust diseases of cereals by metabolic products of Verticillium chlamydosporium. J. Phytopathol. 136 (3): 177-193.
Leonard, K. J. and Szabo, L. J. (2005). Stem rust of small grains and grasses caused by Pucciniagraminis. Molecular Plant Pathology. 6(2): 99-111.
Lim, XZ. (2014). Rust threatening wheat crops worldwide could be thwarted with genetics, but anti-GMofervor remains challenge. Genetic Literacy Project. https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org /2014/07/01/rust-threatening-wheatcrops-worldwide-could-be-thwartedwith-genetics-but-anti-gmo-fervorremains-challenge/ Line, R. F. (2002). Stripe rust of wheat and barley in North America: a retrospective historical review. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 40(1): 75-118.
Line, R. F., and Rakotondradona, R. (1980). Chemical control of Puccinia striiformis and Pucciniarecondita. In Proc. Eur. Mediterr. Cereal Rusts Conf., 5th (pp. 239-241).
Mahmuti, M., West, J. S., Watts, J., Gladders, P., and Fitt, B. D. (2009). Controlling crop disease contributes to both food security and climate change mitigation. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. 7(3): 189- 202.
Marsalis, M.A. and Goldberg, N.P.(2016). Leaf, Stem and Stripe Rust Disease of Wheat, Guide A-415, New Mexico State University, Cooperative Extension Serve, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences.
Mcelrone, A. J., Reid, C. D., Hoye, K. A., Hart, E. and Jackson, R. B. (2005). Elevated CO2 reduces disease incidence and severity of a red maple fungal pathogen via changes in host physiology and leaf chemistry. Global Change Biology. 11(10): 1828-1836.
McIntosh R.A., Yamazaki Y., Dubcovsky J., Rogers J., Morris C., Somers D.J., Appels R., Devos K.M. (2008). Catalogue of gene symbols for wheat. In: Proc. 11th International Wheat Genetics Symposium (R. Appels, R. Eastwood, E. Lagudah, P. Langridge, M. Mackay, L. McIntyre, P. Sharp, eds.). Brisbane, Australia, 24–29 August 2008. Available on: http://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG2/Triticu m/wgc/2008/ [Accessed: May 5, 2013] McIntosh RA, Yamazaki Y, Devos KM, Dubcovsky J, Rogers WJ, Appels R (2003) Catalogue of gene symbols for wheat. In Proc. 10th Int. Wheat Genetics Symposium (Ed. NE Pogna, M Romano, EA Pogna and G Galterio). Vol.4, pp. 1-34 and associated CD-Rom. (S.I.M.I., via N. Nisco 3/A-00179 Roma, Italy).
McIntosh, R. A., Wellings, C. R. and Park, R. F. (1995). Wheat rusts: an atlas of resistance genes. Csiro Publishing.
Melloy, P., Hollaway, G., Luck, J. O., Norton, R. O. B., Aitken, E. and Chakraborty, S. (2010). Production and fitness of Fusarium pseudograminearum inoculum at elevated carbon dioxide in FACE. Global Change Biology. 16(12): 3363-3373.
Pahadi, P. and Sapkota, M. (2016). Variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis in Maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in Baitadi, Nepal. International Journal of Experimental Research and Review. 6: 25-34.
Rajaram, S., Singh, R.P. and Torres, E. (1988). Current approaches in breeding wheat for rust resistance. In: Breeding Strategies for Resistance to Rusts of Wheat, pp: 101–118.
Symmonds, N.W. and S. Rajaram (eds.). CIMMYT, Mexico D.F., Mexico Rampitsch, C., Bykova, N. V., McCallum, B., Beimcik, E. V. A. and Ens, W. (2006). Analysis of the wheat and Puccinia triticina (leaf rust) proteomes during a susceptible host-pathogen interaction. Proteomics. 6(6): 1897-1907.
Rehman, A. U., Sajjad, M., Khan, S. H. and Ahmad, N. (2013). Prospects of wheat breeding for durable resistance against brown, yellow and black rust fungi. Int J Agric Biol. 15: 1209-1220.
Risk, J. M., Selter, L. L., Krattinger, S. G., Viccars, L. A., Richardson, T. M., Buesing, G., Herren, G., Lagudah, E. S. and Keller, B. (2012). Functional Variability of the Lr34 Durable Resistance Gene in Transgenic Wheat. Plant Biotech. J. 10 (4): 477-87.
Roelfs, A. P., and Bushnell, W. R. (Eds.). (1985). The cereal rusts: diseases, distribution, epidemiology, and control. Academic Press.
Roelfs, A. P., McVey, D. V., Long, D. L. and Rowell, J. B. (1972). Natural rust epidemics in Wheat nurseries as affected by inoculum density. Plant Disease Reporter. 56(5): 410-414.
Rowell, J. B. and Roelfs, A. P. (1976). Wheat stem rust In Modeling for Pest Management, Concepts, Techniques, and Applications U.S.A./U.S.S.R. (R. L. Tummala, D. L. Haynes, and B. A. Croft, eds.), 2nd U.S./U.S.S.R. Symp., pp. 69– 79.
Michigan State University, East Lansing Rytter I. L., Lukezic F. L., Craig R. and Moorman, G.W (1989). Biological control of geranium rust by Bacillus subtilis. Phytopathology. 79: 367-370.
Saksiriat, W. and Hoppe, H. H. (1990). Verlicilliliin psalliotae: an effective myco-parasite of the soybean rust fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. I Plant Dis Protect. 97: 622- 633.
Schumann, G. L. and Leonard, K. J. (2000). Stem Rust of Wheat (Black Rust). The Plant Health Instructor. Accessed July 13, 2013. http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intro pp/lessons/fungi/Bas idiomycetes/Pages/StemRust.aspx.
Schwessinger, B. (2016). Fundamental wheat stripe rust research in the 21st century. New Phytologist.
Shaw, M. W., Bearchell, S. J., Fitt, B. D. L. and Fraaije, B. A. (2008). Long-term relationships between environment and abundance in wheat of Phaeosphaerica nodorum and Mycosphaerella graminicola. New Phytologist. 177: 229–238.
Singh RP (1992) Genetic association of leaf rust resistance gene Lr34 with adult plant resistance to stripe rust in bread wheat. Phytopathology. 82: 835-838.
Singh, R. P., Huerta-Espino, J. and Roelfs, A. P. (2002). The wheat rusts. Growth. 2(25): 35.
Singh, R. P., Nelson, J. C. and Sorrells, M. E. (2000). Mapping and Other Genes for Resistance to Stripe Rust in Wheat. Crop Science. 40(4): 1148-1155.
Singh, R. P., William, H. M., Huerta-Espino, J. and Rosewarne, G. (2004). Wheat rust in Asia: meeting the challenges with old and new technologies. In Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress (Vol. 26). Stakman, E. C. and Levine, M. N. (1922). The determination of biologic forms of Puccinia graminis on Triticum spp (Vol. 8). University Farm. Von Meyer, W.C., Greenfield, S. A. and Seidel, M. C. (1970). Wheat leaf rust: Control by 4-n-butyl-1, 2,4-triazole, a systemic fungicide. Science. 169: 997-998.
Zadoks, J. C. and Bouwman, J. J. (1985). Epidemiology in Europe. In A.P. Roelfs and W.R. Bushnell, eds. The cereal rusts, vol. 2, Diseases, distribution, epidemiology, and control, p. 329-369. Orlando, FL, USA, Academic Press.
Borlaug, N. E. (1984). Plant breeding goals and strategies for the 80s. In: Evans, D. A.; Sharp, W. R.; Ammirato, P. V., eds. Handbook of plant cell culture, vol. 4. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co.
Buchenauer, H. (1976). Studies on the systemic activity of Bayleton (triadimefon) and its effect against certain fungal diseases of cereals. Pflanzenschutz-Nachr Bayer. 29(3): 226-280.
Bushnell, W. R., and Rowell, J. B. (1968). Premature death of adult rusted wheat plants in relation to carbon dioxide evolution by root systems. Phytopathology. 58: 651–658.
Chakraborty, S., Luck, J., Hollaway, G., Fitzgerald, G. and White, N. (2010). Rust-proofing wheat for a changing climate. Borlaug Global Rust Initiative BGRI. Technical Workshop, 30–31 May 2010, St Petersburg.
Chen, X. M. (2005). Epidemiology and control of stripe rust [Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici] on wheat. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 27 (3): 314–337.
Chen, X. M. (2013). Review article: hightemperature adult-plant resistance, key for sustainable control of stripe rust. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 4: 608–627.
Chester, K. S. (1946). The Nature and Prevention of the Cereal Rusts as Exemplified in the Leaf Rust of Wheat, Chronica botanica. Waltham, Massachusetts. Chester, K. S., Gilbert, F. A., Hay, R. E., and Newton, N. (1951). Cereal Rusts: Epidemiology, Losses, and Control. Battellc Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio Clifford, B. C., and Harris, R. G. (1981). Controlled environment studies of the epidemic potential of Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici on wheat in Britain. Transactions of the British mycological Society. 77(2): 351-358.
Datta, D., Nayar, S. K., Prashar, M. and Bhardwaj, S. C. (2009). Inheritance of temperature-sensitive leaf rust resistance and adult plant stripe rust resistance in common wheat cultivar PBW343. Euphytica. 166: 277-282.
Dennis, J. I. (1987). Effect of high temperatures on survival and development of Puccinia striiformis on wheat. Trans Brit Mycol Soc. 88: 91-96.
Dhakal, K., Singh, K. P., Adhikari, S., Ojha, R. and Sapkota, M. (2016). Response of application of different sources of nutrients as fertilizer on growth and yield of Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis ) and its residual effect on soil. International Journal of Experimental Research and Review. 7: 10-17.
Eastburn, D. M., Degennaro, M. M., Delucia, E. H., Dermody, O. and Mcelrone, A. J. (2010). Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide and ozone alter soybean diseases at Soy FACE. Global Change Biology. 16(1): 320-330.
Ekom, D. C. T., Benchekroun, M. N., Udupa, S. M., Iraqi, D. and Ennaji, M. M. (2015). Wheat Genetic Transformation as Efficient Tools to Fight against Fungal Diseases. Journal of agricultural Science and Technology. 5: 153-161, David publishing. doi: 10.17265/2161- 6256/2016.03.001.
Ellis, J.G., Lagudah, E.S., Spielmeyer, W. and Dodds, P. N. (2014). The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat. Front. Plant Sci. 5: 641.
Eversmeyer, M. G. and Kramer, C. L. (2000). Epidemiology of Wheat Leaf and Stem Rust in the Central Great Plains of the USA 1. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 38(1): 491-513.
Ezzahiri, B. (2001). Diseases of Wheat: Identification, Development Factors and Methods. Technology Transfer in Agriculture, Bulletin Mensuel d’Information et de Liaison du PNTTA. Accessed July 13, 2013. http://www.agrimaroc.net/77.pdf. (in French).
FAO. (2014). FAO Wheat Rust Global Programme 2014-2017, Strengthening capacities and promoting collaboration to prevent wheat rust epidemics. http://www.fao.org/resilience/resource s/resources-detail/en/c/234252/.
FAO, IFAD and WFP. (2014). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014. Strengthening the enabling environment for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO FAO. (2009). State of Food Insecurity in the World 2009.
FAO, Rome Flor, H. H. (1956). The complementary genic systems in flax and flax rust. Advances in genetics. 8: 29-54.
Grahski, G. C. and Mendgen, K. (1986). Die Parasiticrung des Bohnenrostes Uro111yces appendiClllallls var. appendiculallls dureh den Hyperparasitcn Verticillium lecanii: Untcrsuchungen zur Wirterkennung. zur Penetration unci Abbau der Rostpilzsporen. J. PhytopathoI. 15:116- 123.
Gregory, P. J., Johnson, S. N., Newton, A. C. and Ingram, J. S. (2009). Integrating pests and pathogens into the climate change/food security debate. Journal of Experimental Botany. 60(10): 2827- 2838.
Horvath, H., Rostoks, N., Brueggeman, R., Steffenson, B., von Wettstein, D. and Kleinhofs, A. (2003).
Genetically engineered stem rust resistance in barley using the Rpg1 gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100(1): 364-369.
Johnson, R. (1978). Practical breeding for durable resistance to rust diseases in self-pollinating cereals. Euphytica. 27(2): 529-540.
Johnson, R. (1981). Durable disease resistance, in “strategies for the control of cereal disease (JF Jenkyn and RT Plumb, eds) pp. 55-64, Blackwell, Oxford. Johnson, R. (1988). Durable resistance to yellow (stripe) rust in wheat and its implications in plant breeding. In Breeding Strategies for Resistance to the Rusts of Wheat, El Batan, Mexico (Mexico), 29 Jun-1 Jul 1987. CIMMYT.
Karnosky, D. F., Percy, K. E., Xiang, B., Callan, B., Noormets, A., Mankovska, B. and Isebrands, J. G. (2002). Interacting elevated CO2 and tropospheric O3 predisposes aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) to infection by rust (Melampsora medusae f. sp. tremuloidae). Global Change Biology. 8(4): 329-338.
Kobayashi, F., Takumi, S., Egawa, C., Ishibashi, M. and Nakamura, C. (2006). Expression patterns of low temperature responsive genes in a dominant ABA-less-sensitive mutant line of common wheat. Physiologia Plantarum. 127(4): 612-623.
Kolmer, J. A. (1996). Genetics of resistance to wheat leaf rust 1. Annual review of Phytopathology. 34(1): 435-455.
Leinhos, G. M. E. and Buchenauer, H. (1992). Inhibition of rust diseases of cereals by metabolic products of Verticillium chlamydosporium. J. Phytopathol. 136 (3): 177-193.
Leonard, K. J. and Szabo, L. J. (2005). Stem rust of small grains and grasses caused by Pucciniagraminis. Molecular Plant Pathology. 6(2): 99-111.
Lim, XZ. (2014). Rust threatening wheat crops worldwide could be thwarted with genetics, but anti-GMofervor remains challenge. Genetic Literacy Project. https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org /2014/07/01/rust-threatening-wheatcrops-worldwide-could-be-thwartedwith-genetics-but-anti-gmo-fervorremains-challenge/ Line, R. F. (2002). Stripe rust of wheat and barley in North America: a retrospective historical review. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 40(1): 75-118.
Line, R. F., and Rakotondradona, R. (1980). Chemical control of Puccinia striiformis and Pucciniarecondita. In Proc. Eur. Mediterr. Cereal Rusts Conf., 5th (pp. 239-241).
Mahmuti, M., West, J. S., Watts, J., Gladders, P., and Fitt, B. D. (2009). Controlling crop disease contributes to both food security and climate change mitigation. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. 7(3): 189- 202.
Marsalis, M.A. and Goldberg, N.P.(2016). Leaf, Stem and Stripe Rust Disease of Wheat, Guide A-415, New Mexico State University, Cooperative Extension Serve, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences.
Mcelrone, A. J., Reid, C. D., Hoye, K. A., Hart, E. and Jackson, R. B. (2005). Elevated CO2 reduces disease incidence and severity of a red maple fungal pathogen via changes in host physiology and leaf chemistry. Global Change Biology. 11(10): 1828-1836.
McIntosh R.A., Yamazaki Y., Dubcovsky J., Rogers J., Morris C., Somers D.J., Appels R., Devos K.M. (2008). Catalogue of gene symbols for wheat. In: Proc. 11th International Wheat Genetics Symposium (R. Appels, R. Eastwood, E. Lagudah, P. Langridge, M. Mackay, L. McIntyre, P. Sharp, eds.). Brisbane, Australia, 24–29 August 2008. Available on: http://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG2/Triticu m/wgc/2008/ [Accessed: May 5, 2013] McIntosh RA, Yamazaki Y, Devos KM, Dubcovsky J, Rogers WJ, Appels R (2003) Catalogue of gene symbols for wheat. In Proc. 10th Int. Wheat Genetics Symposium (Ed. NE Pogna, M Romano, EA Pogna and G Galterio). Vol.4, pp. 1-34 and associated CD-Rom. (S.I.M.I., via N. Nisco 3/A-00179 Roma, Italy).
McIntosh, R. A., Wellings, C. R. and Park, R. F. (1995). Wheat rusts: an atlas of resistance genes. Csiro Publishing.
Melloy, P., Hollaway, G., Luck, J. O., Norton, R. O. B., Aitken, E. and Chakraborty, S. (2010). Production and fitness of Fusarium pseudograminearum inoculum at elevated carbon dioxide in FACE. Global Change Biology. 16(12): 3363-3373.
Pahadi, P. and Sapkota, M. (2016). Variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis in Maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in Baitadi, Nepal. International Journal of Experimental Research and Review. 6: 25-34.
Rajaram, S., Singh, R.P. and Torres, E. (1988). Current approaches in breeding wheat for rust resistance. In: Breeding Strategies for Resistance to Rusts of Wheat, pp: 101–118.
Symmonds, N.W. and S. Rajaram (eds.). CIMMYT, Mexico D.F., Mexico Rampitsch, C., Bykova, N. V., McCallum, B., Beimcik, E. V. A. and Ens, W. (2006). Analysis of the wheat and Puccinia triticina (leaf rust) proteomes during a susceptible host-pathogen interaction. Proteomics. 6(6): 1897-1907.
Rehman, A. U., Sajjad, M., Khan, S. H. and Ahmad, N. (2013). Prospects of wheat breeding for durable resistance against brown, yellow and black rust fungi. Int J Agric Biol. 15: 1209-1220.
Risk, J. M., Selter, L. L., Krattinger, S. G., Viccars, L. A., Richardson, T. M., Buesing, G., Herren, G., Lagudah, E. S. and Keller, B. (2012). Functional Variability of the Lr34 Durable Resistance Gene in Transgenic Wheat. Plant Biotech. J. 10 (4): 477-87.
Roelfs, A. P., and Bushnell, W. R. (Eds.). (1985). The cereal rusts: diseases, distribution, epidemiology, and control. Academic Press.
Roelfs, A. P., McVey, D. V., Long, D. L. and Rowell, J. B. (1972). Natural rust epidemics in Wheat nurseries as affected by inoculum density. Plant Disease Reporter. 56(5): 410-414.
Rowell, J. B. and Roelfs, A. P. (1976). Wheat stem rust In Modeling for Pest Management, Concepts, Techniques, and Applications U.S.A./U.S.S.R. (R. L. Tummala, D. L. Haynes, and B. A. Croft, eds.), 2nd U.S./U.S.S.R. Symp., pp. 69– 79.
Michigan State University, East Lansing Rytter I. L., Lukezic F. L., Craig R. and Moorman, G.W (1989). Biological control of geranium rust by Bacillus subtilis. Phytopathology. 79: 367-370.
Saksiriat, W. and Hoppe, H. H. (1990). Verlicilliliin psalliotae: an effective myco-parasite of the soybean rust fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. I Plant Dis Protect. 97: 622- 633.
Schumann, G. L. and Leonard, K. J. (2000). Stem Rust of Wheat (Black Rust). The Plant Health Instructor. Accessed July 13, 2013. http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intro pp/lessons/fungi/Bas idiomycetes/Pages/StemRust.aspx.
Schwessinger, B. (2016). Fundamental wheat stripe rust research in the 21st century. New Phytologist.
Shaw, M. W., Bearchell, S. J., Fitt, B. D. L. and Fraaije, B. A. (2008). Long-term relationships between environment and abundance in wheat of Phaeosphaerica nodorum and Mycosphaerella graminicola. New Phytologist. 177: 229–238.
Singh RP (1992) Genetic association of leaf rust resistance gene Lr34 with adult plant resistance to stripe rust in bread wheat. Phytopathology. 82: 835-838.
Singh, R. P., Huerta-Espino, J. and Roelfs, A. P. (2002). The wheat rusts. Growth. 2(25): 35.
Singh, R. P., Nelson, J. C. and Sorrells, M. E. (2000). Mapping and Other Genes for Resistance to Stripe Rust in Wheat. Crop Science. 40(4): 1148-1155.
Singh, R. P., William, H. M., Huerta-Espino, J. and Rosewarne, G. (2004). Wheat rust in Asia: meeting the challenges with old and new technologies. In Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress (Vol. 26). Stakman, E. C. and Levine, M. N. (1922). The determination of biologic forms of Puccinia graminis on Triticum spp (Vol. 8). University Farm. Von Meyer, W.C., Greenfield, S. A. and Seidel, M. C. (1970). Wheat leaf rust: Control by 4-n-butyl-1, 2,4-triazole, a systemic fungicide. Science. 169: 997-998.
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Published
2016-12-30
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Pradhan, S., Sapkota, M., & Thapa, D. B. (2016). Wheat rust: The devastation and attempts to control over the years. International Journal of Experimental Research and Review, 8, 9–22. Retrieved from https://qtanalytics.in/journals/index.php/IJERR/article/view/1307
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